The Hellenistic Period 323-31 B.C.
The Hellenistic period is bracketed by the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. and the annexation of the Hellenistic empire by the Romans in 31 B.C.
After Alexander the Great died, his vast empire was divided among various generals. These were the “Diadochs.” For example, Ptolemy got Egypt; Seleucus got Syria & Mesopotamia; Lysimachas got Macedonia etc. In determining the succession and division of the empire, there was a lot of quarreling and warfare.
Hellenistic art (vs. Hellenic) was produced by Greek artists — but often for non-Greek patrons that were part of the conquest of Alexander the Great. The Hellenistic period represents an age of artists exploring scenes of rulers, dramatic literature, novelty, and extreme body types. Before the Hellenistic period, we see a general progression of styles. During the Hellenistic period, we see an amalgam of styles.
Pergamon
Pergamon was located in Asia Minor. After the death of Alexander, it was under the control of Lysimachos. Pergamon was a small town of no importance until it was selected for storage of the royal treasury. It was considered to be a safe location because it was far enough away from the sea so as not to prone to sudden attacks, yet near enough to have access to the sea for communications.
Here's brief history of how Pergamon became an independent state. Philetairos was a general of Lysimachos at the isolated location of Pergamon. After 15 years of loyal service, he feared being ousted. He defected to Seleukos. Then Lysimachos was defeated by Seleukos. For awhile, Philetairos remained a vassal to Seleukos. When Seleukos was killed, however, then Philetairos declared Pergamon to be an independent state, and he used the treasury to finance the state.
Over time, this town emerged as one of the wealthiest and most important cities of the Hellenistic World. Below is the sequence of hereditary rulers for Pergamon:
Philitairos -->Eumenes I --> Attalos I --> Eumenes II --> Attalos II --> Attolos III --> bequeathed Pergamon Rome. Altogether, these rulers are known as the Attalid dynasty.
Pergamon, Site Plan
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Pergamon was a fortified city. The oldest part of the city was situated on a steep ridge between two rivers — this was called the upper city or the acropolis. Yes!! Pergamon had an acropolis -- just like Athens.
During the third century B.C., the Precinct (or Sanctuary) of Athena was erected, together with palace quarters, barracks, and arsenals. (Locate the Precinct of Athena on the site plan).
During the second century B.C., some other major projects were built (all of which are on the site plan):
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Pergamon, model of the Acropolis
Beginning in 279 B.C. the Gauls began to invade Asia Minor.
The Gauls were a large group of linguistically related people whose history goes back to the bronze age. They were Celtic speaking peoples from Ireland, Britain, France, and Northern Italy. During the 3rd century B.C., groups of Gauls began to migrate to the Asia Minor. They sacked cities and were ferocious fighters. They also threatened cities and exacted money in exchange for “peace.” Some of the Diadochs, including Seleukos, hired the Gauls as mercenary soldiers. The Gauls were always a problem for the Greeks; much later however, they were turned into Romans by Julius Caesar.
To the Greeks, these peoples were known as “barbarians.” The term barbarian meaning that these were people “baaing like sheep.” It meant that they were speaking an unintelligible language, but also that they were being regarded with scorn.
Pergamon was constantly under siege by the Gauls — In the 230s, however, the Gauls attacked Pergamon and Attalos I defeated them. Then, in 288-233 B.C., Attalos I undertook aggressive campaigns against the Gauls and, again, defeated them. It appeared that Attalos I had saved Pergamon, just as Athens had saved Greece from the Persians (fifth century B.C. — 499-479 B.C.)
Epigonos (?), Dying Gaul, Victory Monument of Attalos I of Pergamon, 230-220 B.C.
This was one sculpture from a large monument erected by Attolos I to celebrate victory over the Gauls. With this victory, Pergamon as a city rivaled the other diadoch kingdoms established after Alexander the Great. Pergamon viewed itself as a heritor and protector of Greek culture.
To carry out this project, Attalos I hired a number of prominent Greek sculptors to work under the general supervision of a native sculptor from Pergamon. In many ways, this was akin to Pericles and his building program for the Athenian acropolis.
There were three statues associated with the victory monument commissioned by Attalos I. It is believed that they were displayed on a tall base because three statue bases have been recovered which appear to date to this period. However, we do not know how the sculpture related to the extant bases.
This version of the Dying Gaul is a Roman, marble copy. The original produced under the direction of Epigonos between 230-220 B.C. was of a bronze.
Notice that this figure does not look Greek:
mustache
silver torque around neck
bushy hair
The ethnic identity of this figure is communicated by the torque which appears on his neck. He's a Gaul -- e.g. a barbarian. The beardless face connotes the rank of chieftain (as described in the writings of Diodoros; this figure is also mentioned in Pliny).
In this composition, the foreign warrior has been stabbed and is bleeding. He has collapsed on his oval shield, on which rests his coil-shaped trumpet. Near his right hand is a sword. He has the proportions of Lysippos’s figure, but a more open composition.
The Greeks saw the Gauls as a formidable enemy, one both feared and respected. It seems that the physical attributes of the Dying Gaul were intended to reveal strength and courage. Hence, the figure affirms that the Greek victory was particularly sweet in that it was victory over a worthy opponent. It is a very realistic and believable portrayal. We see taut, tortured musculature and physical anguish. It is quite dramatic -- the last gasp of life before death.
The composition may have been Influenced by the archaic figures in the pediment sculpture of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina.
Epigonos (?), Gallic chieftain killing himself and his wife
This is a second sculpture from the victory monument commissioned by Attalos I. Scholars believe that these two figures were probably originally confronted by an equestrian figure (that is a soldier on a horse). Rather than being killed by the Greeks, these individuals killed themselves. The Gaul has just killed his wife and is now plunging the sword into his own neck. Certainly, this is an artistic attempt to elicit feeling in the viewer. Another indication that of the strong influence of Greek sculpture is that the artist here used Polykleitan proportions.
Altar of Zeus at Pergamon, Eumenes II, ca. 180-160 B.C.
The Altar of Zeus was erected by Eumenes II at Pergamon. Today it stands in a museum in Berlin. It is believed to have been intended to commemorate the victory of Pergamon over the Gauls. The name, however, is somewhat misleading. This was a large building that actually housed an altar which was dedicated to Zeus.
The architecture that we see here has a combination of forms:
A high podium
A large frieze on the podium
an Ionic colonade
Hence this is Non-Greek architectural form.
As noted above, the frieze is very large -- approx. 8 feet high. The composition that it displays has an enormous amount of movement. There is virtually no free space. Most figures have their backs or chests to the wall and are conceived of as two-dimensional — akin to Myron’s Discobolus. All figures have Polykleitan proportions (head = 1/7 of body).
Gigantomachy frieze from the Altar of Zeus
The sculptures were discovered between 1878 and 1886 by a German expedition and, as indicated earlier, are now in Berlin. Approximately 84 figures are now preserved and there may have been as many as 100 originally. They display incredibly deft stone work.
The subject is the familiar gigantomachy — battle between the gods and the giants.
The giants are children of Gaia (the earth) and Ouranos (the sky). These were earlier manifestations of the native gods before the beginnings of the Greek civilization. The Greek gods consist of Zeus and the gods at Mt. Olympus. The theme was the successful establishment of Greek culture.
In this panel, Gaia begs Athena to save the lives her children. She emerges from the earth as a bust and the bust form was native to Italy. These sculptures were probably painted. These giants could metamorphosize into different forms — snakes, bulls, lions. In some cases, we know the identity of the figures because their names are inscribed on the molding.
Stylistically, the composition is tumultuous, writhing, and theatrical. The surface is deeply cut. We see exaggerated musculature and deeply set eyes. It is very emotional. This is the work of Greek sculptors, but the approach is distinctly non-Greek. As noted at the beginning, the Hellenistic period produced a wide variety of art, and these highly expressive and emotional compositions are often described as Hellenistic Baroque.